Motivation: A Framework

Definition
Motivation has been defined as a sincere desire to participate in or continue an activity (Cohen and Spenciner, 1994). Occurring before the learning behavior, motivation typically involves use of enticing materials, inviting educational settings, and alluring learning environments (Noonan and McCormick, 1993). Therefore, teachers can channel their students' intrinsic desire to learn into academic and socially appropriate activities by providing interesting, challenging, and engaging social and physical educational experiences.

Types of Motivation
Within educational settings, extrinsic motivation is the desire to achieve consequences that are the result of learning such as grades, money, tokens, etc. When a student is extrinsically motivated, learning is a means to obtain an end. Intrinsic motivation is the desire to participate in learning activities for the satisfaction or enjoyment of the experience regardless of the consequences (McKeachie, 1999). Individuals who learn because of their curiosity, interest, or enjoyment are likely to become actively engaged in the learning activity, be inspired to participate, and retain the acquired knowledge. Affiliation motivation is the desire to be liked and accepted. Elementary students typically desire to be affirmed by their teachers.  This is why teachers who are "warm," friendly, and responsive to their students are more effective than "cold", unfriendly, and insensitive teachers. Also, students typically desire to be accepted by their family and peers.  Students, whose family and peers have similar values as their teachers, are more likely to be motivated to be engaged in the learning process. Conversely, students, who feel alienated from family and/or school, are likely to seek out strong affiliations with peers. And, when students experience strong affiliation with a peer group not valuing education, teachers are faced with a major challenge.

Importance of Success
A central theme in motivation theory is that learners need to believe success is possible (McKeachie, 1999). Humans typically receive pleasure from doing things well (intrinsic motivation), and consequently develop a sense of competence or self-worth. Individuals who feel success is not possible develop a sense of incompetence, are likely to stop trying, and avoid frustrating experiences.  Grades (extrinsic motivation) may encourage some students to learn. Unfortunately, students, motivated to get high grades, tend to be more interested in learning to get the grade than learning for later application and use. Students may do the least they can to get the grade they desire. In addition, students who fear failure may avoid academic situations.

Teacher Challenges
A major challenge for teachers is to intrinsically motivate students to participate in learning activities. Research suggests that people seek and enjoy learning experiences somewhat different from the experiences to which they are accustomed, but cannot relate to experiences very different from their previous knowledge. When the learning challenge is similar, but slightly different from previous knowledge, students are likely to perceive a challenge. When the new knowledge is substantially different from previous experiences, the student is likely to experience stress and give up. Another primary challenge for teachers is to motivate students to learn the academic goals of their curricula and the social skills of mainstream society. Teachers can motivate students by increasing the value of their learning or the expectation that the material they are to learn will be useful to them (McKeachie, 1999).

Techniques for Facilitating Student Motivation

• Use a Variety of Teaching Methods.
• Use a Variety of Ways for Students to Participate.. 
• Use Language to Motivate.
• Provide Students with Ample Opportunities to Experience Success.
• Provide a Variety of Ways for Students to Demonstrate Competence.
• Challenge Students with New, but Solvable Problems.
• Set Realistic, Achievable Standards.
• Arouse Enthusiasm and Curiosity by Novelty.
• Enable Students to Experience the Thrill of Discovery.
• Give Students Meaningful Choices for Learning.
• Use Cooperative Learning Groups and Peer Learning Methods.
• Provide Ample Opportunities to Undertake Challenging Tasks and Succeed.
• Attribute Success to Student Ability.
• Enrich the Educational Environment.

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Cooke, R. E., Tessier, A., & Klein, M.D. (1992). Adapting early childhood curricula for children with special needs. New York: Merrill.

McKeachie, W. J. (1999). Teaching tips: Strategies, research, and theory for college and university teachers. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

Rivera, D. P. and Smith, D. D. (1997). Teaching students with learning and behavior problems. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.